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Iraq the Vote

About the War
on Terrorism

The U.S. originally presented the Iraq War
as part of its war on terrorism, so to understand
the conflict in Iraq, it's important to understand terrorism. Accordingly, this page has answers to frequently asked questions about terrorism, al Qaeda, 9/11, and the U.S. war on terrorism. For more information, see:


Who is most likely to become a terrorist?

Although exceptions exist, most terrorists are males in their teens and twenties—the same group that is most likely to commit violent crimes in general. In the case of suicide attacks, terrorists also tend to be unmarried. Other than that, there are not many demographic or psychological differences between terrorists and non-terrorists.1

Do terrorists tend to be crazy and/or psychopathic?

No. Although terrorists often hold extremist ideologies, they do not tend to be psychotic, psychopathic, or otherwise clinically disordered.2 A hallmark of psychopathic killers is their lack of regard for others, which does not fit with terrorists killing or dying for the sake of a political, nationalistic, or religious cause. In general, terrorist groups try to recruit reliable team players and screen out unstable individuals who might compromise the group's covert operations.3 As one terrorism researcher has put it, "the outstanding common characteristic of terrorists is their normality."4

Is there such a thing as a terrorist personality?

No. Terrorists do not tend to differ significantly from non-terrorists in personality, nor are they more likely to be friendless, unemployed, or religious compared with other people living in their area.5 The one psychological area in which terrorists do seem to differ from other people is in their level of anger. According to a report by the National Research Council:

"There is no single or typical mentality—much less a specific pathology—of terrorists. However, terrorists apparently find significant gratification in the expression of generalized rage."6

Consistent with this finding, many terrorists explain their actions as an effort to fight a perceived injustice, restore honor, or seek retribution.7

Do terrorists tend to lack formal education?

In some cases yes, but in other cases terrorists have as much or more education than the general public.8 For example, one study found that 57% of Palestinian suicide bombers had education beyond high school, compared with only 15% of Palestinians in the same age bracket.9 In a similar vein, nearly all leaders of the militant Palestinian group Hamas are university graduates, and many Al Qaeda members are graduates of colleges, universities, and military academies (as were the September 11th terrorists).10

Is poverty the main cause of terrorism?

No. In the 49 countries designated by the United Nations as least developed, hardly any terrorism occurs.11 Moreover, after statistically controlling for the level of civil liberties in a country, international terrorist activity is unrelated to per capita income, infant mortality, literacy, or any other index related to poverty.12 In the words of Kofi Annan, Former Secretary General of the United Nations, "The poor have enough burdens without being considered likely terrorists simply because they are poor."13

Is political repression the main cause of terrorism?

No. If repression were the main cause of terrorism, a substantial amount of terrorism would have occurred in Stalinist Russia, Nazi Germany, and Spain under Franco. Instead, relatively little terrorism took place under these regimes, in part because dictators can crush terrorism by using overwhelming force without concern about public opinion or violating the law.14

If terrorism isn't caused by poverty or repression, what causes it?

The question "What causes terrorism?" is a little like asking what causes murder; there are many different causes, not one general cause. As one leading expert has written:

"The endeavor to find a 'general theory' of terrorism, one overall explanation of its roots, is a futile and misguided enterprise. The motives of the Russian revolutionaries of 1881 have as much to do with al Qa'ida and the various jihads as does the terrorism of Oklahoma City with Peru's Shining Path or the Columbian revolutionaries and drug dealers."15

To understand the roots of terrorism directed at specific groups or countries, it is most useful to focus on those groups rather than terrorism in general.

Why have international terrorist groups targeted the U.S.?

Although this question is far from settled—and any complete answer will likely be complex—there appears to be at least one common theme in many attacks against the U.S. According to a senior terrorism researcher who consults with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, anti-American terrorism is often a reaction to U.S. military, financial, and political support for unpopular regimes.16 Indeed, by one estimate, 85% of all suicide attacks in the past quarter-century have occurred in response to U.S. combat operations.17

Could the 9/11 terrorist attacks have been predicted?

Yes. In fact, a 1999 U.S. government-sponsored report entitled "The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism" not only predicted an attack but even described how it might occur:

"Al-Qaida's expected retaliation for the U.S. cruise missile attack against al-Qaida's training facilities in Afghanistan on August 20, 1998, could take several forms.... Suicide bomber(s) belonging to al-Qaida's Martyrdom Battalion could crash-land an aircraft... into the Pentagon.... Whatever form an attack may take, bin Laden will most likely retaliate in a spectacular way for the cruise missile attack."18

Was Iraq involved in the 9/11 terrorist attacks?

No. None of the September 11th terrorists were Iraqi, nor were any planners or funders of the attack. After an extensive investigation, the bipartisan 9/11 Commission concluded: "We have no credible evidence that Iraq and Al Qaeda cooperated on attacks against the United States."19 Richard Clarke, head of counter-terrorism under Presidents Clinton and Bush, has also stated categorically that "There's absolutely no evidence that Iraq was supporting al Qaeda, ever."20

What was the relationship between Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein?

Adversarial. As reported by the Christian Science Monitor, "Hussein, a secularist, and bin Laden, a Muslim fundamentalist, [were] known to despise each other."21 Bin Laden referred to Saddam as a "socialist infidel" and, according to the 9/11 Report, was sponsoring anti-Saddam Islamists in Iraqi Kurdistan.22 Conversely, a 2006 report by the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence concluded that "Saddam Hussein was distrustful of al-Qa'ida and viewed Islamic extremists as a threat to his regime, refusing all requests from al-Qa'ida to provide material or operational support."23

How did President Bush initially describe the relationship between al Qaeda and Saddam?

As allies. For example, after the U.S. toppled Saddam Hussein's government, President Bush said: "We have removed an ally of Al Qaeda."24 President Bush also said "You can't distinguish between al Qaeda and Saddam when you talk about the war on terror,"25 and "There's no question Saddam Hussein had al Qaeda ties."26

Does President Bush currently believe that Saddam was an ally of al Qaeda?

Unclear. In 2006, President Bush held a press conference in which he was asked about "the claim that Iraq had sponsored the 9/11 terrorists," and he responded: "I didn't say that there was a direct connection between September the 11th and Saddam Hussein."27

Have other U.S. leaders suggested a link between Iraq and al Qaeda?

Yes, both Democratic and Republican leaders have linked Iraq and al Qaeda. Here are some examples:

"There's overwhelming evidence that there was a connection between Al Qaeda and the Iraqi government... I'm very confident that there was an established relationship there."

–Vice President Dick Cheney
(January 22, 2004, National Public Radio interview)

"There was a relationship between Iraq and al-Qaeda that stretched back through most of the decade of the '90s... If we're successful in Iraq... we will have struck a major blow right at the heart of the base, if you will, the geographic base of the terrorists who have had us under assault now for many years, but most especially on 9/11."

–Vice President Dick Cheney
(September 14 of 2003, NBC Meet the Press)

"Iraqi officials deny accusations of ties with Al Qaeda. These denials are simply not credible."

–Secretary of State Colin Powell
(February 5, 2003, Address to U.N. Security Council)

"Saddam Hussein... [has] given aid, comfort and sanctuary to terrorists, including Al Qaeda members."

–Senator Hillary Clinton
(October 10, 2002, U.S. Senate Floor Speech)

"We have evidence of meetings between Iraqi officials and leaders of al Qaeda, and testimony that Iraqi agents helped train al Qaeda operatives to use chemical and biological weapons. We also know that al Qaeda leaders have been, and are now, harbored in Iraq."

–Senator Joseph Lieberman
(October 7, 2002, Wall Street Journal)

How is the war on terrorism related to the Iraq War?

The U.S. Administration presented the Iraq War as part of its global war on terrorism. For instance, before the war a White House report to Congress said that "The use of force against Iraq will directly advance the war on terror."28 President Bush also stated in a letter to Congress that "the use of armed force against Iraq is consistent with the United States and other countries continuing to take the necessary actions against… persons who planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001."29

Have the Iraq War and the war on terrorism reduced the level of terrorism?

On the contrary, terrorism appears to have increased:

  • Based on figures released by the U.S. State Department, there was a 27% increase worldwide in "significant terrorist incidents" between 2002 and 2003 (coinciding with the start of the U.S. war on terrorism) and a 56% increase in casualties.30

  • Before the Iraq war, there had not been a single documented case of suicide terrorism in Iraq, but since the war began there have been hundreds.31 According to the Washington Post, the number of suicide attacks in Iraq increased eightfold between 2003 and 2006.32

  • A comprehensive statistical analysis published in 2007 found that after the invasion of Iraq, the annual number of fatal jihadist attacks rose over 600% worldwide.33

  • In its most recent annual terrorism assessment, the U.S. State Department found that from 2005 to 2006, terrorist attacks against noncombatants increased 29% worldwide, 53% in Afghanistan, and 91% in Iraq.34

Are military strikes generally an effective way to reduce terrorism?

No. According to terrorism researchers who have carefully reviewed the historical record, military responses tend to have either no effect or tend to temporarily increase the level of terrorism.35

Where can I learn more?

To read more about terrorism, counter-terrorism, and the war on terrorism, see:


  1. Crenshaw, M. (1981). The causes of terrorism. Comparative Politics, 13, 379-399. See also Horgan, J. (2003). The search for a terrorist personality. In A. Silke (Ed.), Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences (pp. 3-27). New York: Wiley. Return to text

  2. Horgan, J. (2003). The search for a terrorist personality. In A. Silke (Ed.), Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences (pp. 3-27). New York: Wiley. Return to text

  3. Silke, A. (2003). The psychology of suicidal terrorism. In A. Silke (Ed.), Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences (pp. 93-108). New York: Wiley. Return to text

  4. Page 390 of Crenshaw, M. (1981). The causes of terrorism. Comparative Politics, 13, 379-399. Return to text

  5. Atran, S. (2003). Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299, 1534-1539. Return to text

  6. Page 3 of Smelser, N. J., & Mitchell, F. (Eds.). (2002). Terrorism: Perspectives from the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. See also Fields, R., Elbedour, S., & Hein, F. A. (2003). The Palestinian suicide bomber. In C. E. Stout and K Schwab (Eds.), The psychology of terrorism (vol. 2, pp. 193-223). Westport, CT: Praeger. Return to text

  7. Page 39 of Silke, A. (2003a). Becoming a terrorist. In A. Silke (Ed.), Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences (pp. 29-53). New York: Wiley. See also Stern, J. (2004, June 6). Beneath bombast and bombs, a caldron of humiliation. Los Angeles Times, p. M1. Return to text

  8. United Nations Assistance Mission to Afghanistan (2007, September 1). Suicide Attacks in Afghanistan (2001-2007). Return to text

  9. Krueger, A. B. (2003, May 29). Cash rewards and poverty alone do not explain terrorism. New York Times, p. C2. Return to text

  10. Hoffman, B. (2003, June). The logic of suicide terrorism. The Atlantic, pp. 40-47. Return to text

  11. Laqueur, W. (2003). No end to war: Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Continuum. Return to text

  12. Krueger, A. B. (2003, May 29). Cash rewards and poverty alone do not explain terrorism. New York Times, p. C2 Return to text

  13. Crossette, B. (2002, March 7). Annan says terrorism's roots are broader than poverty. New York Times, p. A10. Return to text

  14. Laqueur, W. (2003). No end to war: Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Continuum. Return to text

  15. Page 22 of Laqueur, W. (2003). No end to war: Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Continuum. Return to text

  16. Crenshaw, M. (2001). Why America? The globalization of civil war. Current History, 100, 425-432. Return to text

  17. Vedantam, S. (2007, September 3). The insurgency's psychological component. Washington Post, p. A3. Return to text

  18. Hudson, R. A. (1999, September). The sociology and psychology of terrorism: Who becomes a terrorist and why? (report prepared under an interagency agreement by the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress). Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Return to text

  19. Page 5 of National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (2004). Overview of the Enemy, Staff Statement 15. Return to text

  20. CBS News. (2004, March 21). Clarke's take on terror. 60 Minutes. A Pentagon-sponsored review of more than 600,000 Iraqi documents also concluded that there was "no 'smoking gun' (i.e., direct connection) between Saddam's Iraq and al Qaeda." See ABC News. (2008, March 13). Report shows no link between Saddam and al Qaeda. Return to text

  21. Feldmann, L. (2003, March 14). The impact of Bush linking 9/11 and Iraq. Christian Science Monitor. Return to text

  22. Page 61 of National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (2004). The 9/11 Commission report: Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Return to text

  23. U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. (2006, September 8). Postwar findings about Iraq's WMD programs and links to terrorism and how they compare with prewar estimates (p. 105). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Return to text

  24. President George W. Bush, President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended, May 1, 2003. Return to text

  25. White House, The Rest of the Story: Iraq's Links to Al Qaeda, September 25, 2002. Return to text

  26. President George W. Bush, Remarks by the President After Meeting with Members of the Congressional Conference Committee on Energy Legislation, September 17, 2003. Return to text

  27. President George W. Bush, President Discusses War on Terror and Operation Iraqi Freedom, March 20, 2006 Return to text

  28. White House, U.S. Has Clear Authority to Use Force Against Iraq, March 19, 2003. Return to text

  29. President George W. Bush, Presidential Letter to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and President Pro Tempore of the Senate, March 21, 2003. Return to text

  30. U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003 (Washington, DC, April 2004, revised on 22 June 2004). Return to text

  31. Pape, R. A. (2005, May 18). Blowing up an assumption. New York Times, p. A23. Return to text

  32. Vedantam, S. (2007, September 3). The insurgency's psychological component. Washington Post, p. A3. Return to text

  33. Bergen, P., & Cruickshank, P. (2007, March 1). The Iraq effect: War has increased terrorism sevenfold worldwide. Mother Jones, pp. 1-6. Return to text

  34. Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism (2007, April 30). Country Reports on Terrorism 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State. Return to text

  35. Silke, A. (2003). Retaliating against terrorism. In A. Silke (Ed.), Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences (pp. 215-231). New York: Wiley. Pape, R. A. (2006). Dying to win: The strategic logic of suicide terrorism. New York: Random House. Return to text